Autocratic & Democratic Leader Essay

Barack Hussein Obama was born in Honolulu, Hawaii on August 4, 1961. His father was from Kenya and his mother was from Kansas. He was raised with help from his grandfather and grandmother. His achievements were all based on hard work, determination and perseverance. In college, he was supported by his scholarship and student loans. He then went to law school and obtained the pose of the president of the Harvard Law Review and being the first ever African-American to obtain it. On November 4, 2008, he was elected as President of the United States of America. He is the first ever black American to get such a high pose in history. Barack Obama is currently the 44th president in the United States. In Oprah. com, it is illustrated that Barack Obama is conscientious (Dzubow, 2009). It is one of the big five personality aspects that he possesses. Barack Obama quoted in his website that he keeps a to-do-list in his desk and that as long as he can count on the society to be a part, they would find a way to continue to make progress on all the campaigns (Fuller, 2013). This is to motivate the people and giving them the will to take part in his campaigns. This shows his determination to achieve what he has started. The second big five personality aspect is neuroticism. He is known to have low neuroticism because he his secure in everything that he says or does. His famous quotes like â€Å"Yes We Can† and â€Å"Change We Need† (Goodreads, 2013) during his speeches shows that he is very confident in what he is doing. Barack Obama is a democratic leader in the United States of America. Recently, he organized a fund raising campaign for Democratic House candidates (Byrne & Geiger, 2013). The procedure of the fundraising campaign is based on the amount that the society contributes. At $1,000, a reception ticket will be given. $5,000 would be given two reception tickets and a photo. A dinner ticket with the democrats and a photo would be given if $10,000 is contributed. $32,400 would be given two dinner tickets, a photo and given the honour to seat anywhere during the dinner. Finally, at 50,000, a table would be complemented, a photo, and preferred seating as well. With this, it would gather many of the residents of Chicago to join and help out in this fundraising campaign. A significant of Barack Hussein Obama was when he received the award of the noble peace prize. Based on his extraordinary efforts to strengthen international diplomacy and cooperation between peoples (Oslo, 2009), he was awarded with the prize in the year 2009. Obama’s vision was to work for a world with no more nuclear weapons. Tun Dr. Mahathir Mohamed Mahathir Mohamed was born on December 20, 1925, in Alor Setar, Kedah. He was brought up in a modest but stable family. His father was a teacher at and English language school. He attended medical school at the University of Malaya in Singapore after he graduated from college. He became active in UMNO and got a seat in the House of Representatives in 1964. He reached the pose of becoming a prime minister in 1981. He sustained his position for 22 years, which is by far the longest pose that has been remained in the history of Malaysia (The Biography Channel website, 2013). One of the personalities that Mahathir possesses is his openness to experience. In 1996, when Malaysia had an eight percent economic expansion, Mahathir was determined to lift Malaysia with a vision. That vision was called Vision 2020. His idea of this innovative vision was to motivate others to work together in order to achieve a better future (The Biography Channel website, 2013). Another one of his personalities is his conscientiousness. Having the new goal which is vision 2020, he made a speech about it and illustrated that by 2020 he is confident that he would succeed. He stated that the goal of vision 2020 cannot be achieved if there is no unity in Malaysia. It would also be affected if there is no confidence in the society. Tun Dr. Mahathir Mohamed is an autocratic leader. As he stated, democracy is a recipe for disaster which shows that he is an anti – democrat, he complained that people are too irresponsible to govern themselves. He also quoted a few examples about democratic countries that were unsuccessful due to strikes and demonstrations (Ignatius, 2012). His significant factor that he contributed was to implement the idea of Vision 2020 which motivated many Malaysians to turn a new leaf. Creating a good mindset for them and letting them know that they are capable of uniting and working together. Also, bringing up a positive slogan for the country called ‘Malaysia Boleh’ (mthago, 2010). Reflection From these two leaders, they both have similarities in their leadership skills. Both are confident in what they are doing and dominant in their own ways. They have good thoughts of bringing up new ideas and setting up goals and campaigns. The only difference in them is that one is a democratic and the other is an autocratic. In my opinion, President Barack Obama is a better leader because he reaches out to the public and has a friendly characteristic compared to Dr. Mahathir. He has made good decisions and helped his country recover from economical downfalls. Also, he has won the noble peace prize. From this, I would conclude that President Barrack Hussein Obama is a better leader and have more followers as well.

Mystery Shopper Next

For our marketing Research project we were required to carry out extensive research on the topic of mystery shopping. This project required us to construct a mystery shopping programme of a service business. The service business that was chosen was Next, a renowned retailer for fashion and homeware. The project will outline the objectives of the research and the mystery shopping programme.It will also examine the results of the programme and suggest possible recommendations. Methodology The primary objective of the report was to find out the public’s perception of Next. In order to attain this information, we decided it was best to initiate a mystery shopper programme. This programme involved hand-picking ten individuals, based on age, sex, and location, to act as consumers in Next. Each individual was to enter the chosen store and to return honest feedback on their experience, through the use of a questionnaire.The drafted questionnaire examined areas such as store layout, st aff, and ambience. The objective of this was to access direct knowledge of consumers opinions in areas that were outlined in the questionnaire and mystery shopper briefing. In order to eliminate bias, each selected individual was briefed on understanding the questionnaire and what aspects of the shop were to be examined. The chosen method provided us with objective feedback which was essential in the completion of the report. Findings In this section of the report we will show our findings of each store that was visited.Altogether there were seven stores visited. (Sligo, Enniskillen, Letterkenny, Athlone, Castlebar, Limerick and the store in the Jervis shopping centre in Dublin). These are our findings: Sligo The Sligo store is located in the quayside shopping centre in Sligo town. The store was visited on four occasions. On each occasion the store was clean and tidy on the inside and out. On every visit the changing rooms were tidy. The outside of the shop was attractive and inviti ng towards customers, with posters advertising a sale and an entrancing and eye catching clothes display in the window.The store is completely wheelchair accessible. No one was greeted as they entered the store, on one visit members of staff were standing around talking amongst themselves, and only one person thought that there was a welcoming atmosphere in the store as it was warm and there was calming music being played. Three out of four people were pleased with the temperature within the shop with one person thinking the air conditioning was turned up too high. The clothes on display were easy to reach for three out of four of the customers, with the same amount finding that all sizes were on display.Only on two of the visits were the staff wearing the correct uniform, such as name badges. On just two out of the four visits the staff asked if assistance was needed and only one customer said that eye contact was made with them and that they were polite. At the till there was an a verage of 1-4 till kiosks open with less than five people in each queue. On all four visits it did not take long to get served and all of the customers were thanked for shopping at the store, but found that the exit signs were not clearly illuminated.All four people said that they would recommend the Sligo store to others. The overall opinions of the store varied. One out of the four customers said that it was perfect. Out of the other three, more helpful staff, a new layout, lower shelves and a bigger store were mentioned. Enniskillen The Next store in Enniskillen is located in the Erneside shopping centre in Enniskillen. This store was visited on only one occasion. On this occasion the entrance and the outside of the store were clean and tidy. The inside was also tidy.It was attractive on the eye and the changing rooms were spotless. The outside of the shop looked attractive and inviting due to the black and white theme on the outside of the shop which ‘Next’ is renow ned for. The store is wheelchair accessible. The customer was not greeted by any member of staff on entrance to the store and thought the atmosphere was not welcoming as it was dark inside the store. The customer thought that the temperature in the store was comfortable. They were not asked however by any member of staff if they needed assistance.The customer found that some of the rails in the store were too high but all sizes were stocked and that the staff were helpful when asked about the sizes, but not all members of staff were wearing a name badge. At the checkout four checkouts were open and there was less than five people in the queue, and did not have to wait long to get served. The customer was thanked for shopping at the store and found that the exit signs were clearly visible. This customer said that they would recommend this store to others and that the staff were quite friendly but could have been more helpful.They’re overall opinion was that the store could be bigger with more or better lighting conditions. Letterkenny The Letterkenny store is located in Letterkenny Retail Park. This store was visited on one occasion. On this occasion the outside of the premises was not clean and tidy and did not look attractive and inviting to customers as it looked dirty. The store is wheelchair accessible. On entering the store the customer was not greeted by a member of staff and the atmosphere was not welcoming as the music in the store was very faint and couldn’t be heard clearly.Other than that the inside of the store was clean, tidy and attractive. The temperature in the shop was fine also. No member of staff asked the customer if they needed assistance. The customer was not able to reach some of the clothes as they were hung too high. Not all the sizes were displayed and stocked but the staff did check to see if they had the size in the store room. The changing room was tidy and uncluttered. When the customer got to the till four tills wer e in operation, there were more than five people in the queue and it took six minutes for them to get served.The staff at the checkout were described as friendly and thanked the customer for shopping in the store. The exit signs were clearly illuminated. The customer said their overall experience of shopping in the store was disappointing but acceptable. The customer also said that they would not recommend this store to others because not all sizes were stocked and the atmosphere in the shop and the customer service was poor, and suggested having more staff on the floor. Athlone The ‘Next’ store in Athlone is located in the Athlone Town shopping centre, just off the M6 motorway.This store was visited once only. The entrance to the store was clean and tidy and the outside of the store was attractive and inviting to customers. The store is wheelchair accessible. When the customer entered the store they were not greeted by anyone. The atmosphere within the shop was not wel coming as there was no music being played in the store, but the temperature was acceptable. The inside of the store was attractive, but the changing rooms were not tidy and unsatisfactory. The clothes were easy to view and reach but not all sizes were displayed.No member of staff asked if the customer needed assistance, but they were polite and helpful when getting a bigger size for the customer. All staff were wearing full uniform including name badges. When the customer got to the checkout there were four tills in operation and did not take long to get served. They were not thanked for shopping at the store but said the checkout staff were friendly and the exit signs were clear and illuminated. The customer said that they would recommend this store to others as they had a good overall experience in the store but feel that more staff are needed.Castlebar The Castlebar store is located in Lannagh Road Retail Park which is a five minute walk from the main street in Castlebar. The ent rance to the store was not up to standard as it was not clean and tidy, although the front of the shop was. The store is wheelchair accessible. When the customer entered the store they were greeted by a member of staff, and due to this made the atmosphere of the store feel welcoming. The inside of the store itself was clean and attractive and the temperature of the store was fine. A member of staff offered assistance, with a smile and good eye contact was made.All staff were wearing the correct uniform with their name badges. All of the sizes were displayed on the rails and they were easily accessible. The changing room was clean and tidy. At the till only a limited number of tills were in operation with less than five people in the queue and it took around three minutes to get served. The customer was thanked for shopping at the store and the exits were clearly marked and illuminated. This customer would recommend this store to others due to the friendly and welcoming atmosphere, b ut suggests better parking facilities. LimerickThe Limerick store is located in the Crescent shopping centre in Limerick which is situated two miles outside of Limerick city centre. The entrance to the shop was not clean and tidy and was blocked by a stand, this did not make the store look attractive and inviting to customers, although it was bright and lit up, the stand spoilt it. The store is wheelchair accessible. The customer was not greeted by a member of staff on entering the store and the atmosphere was not very welcoming. Also the store did not have a modern feel to it, which ‘Next’ would have a reputation for being.The store was not clean or tidy either. The temperature in the store was not sufficient as the customer found it very stuffy. One of the good points about this store was that a member of staff did ask if the customer needed assistance but did not smile or make eye contact while doing so. The staff were wearing the correct uniform including name badge s. The clothes were easily reachable on the rails but not all sizes were displayed or stocked and staff were not helpful when asked for another size. The changing room was clean and tidy.At the checkout there were 1-3 checkouts in operation with more than five people in the queue. It took ten minutes to get served, and the checkout staff did not speak. The customer was not thanked for shopping at the store but the exit signs were clear and illuminated. This customer would not recommend this store others due to not being felt welcomed or comfortable in the store and believes that the store should be renovated. Dublin There are many next stores in Dublin but the one that was visited was the one located in the Jervis shopping centre in Dublin city centre.This store was visited on one occasion. The entrance to the store was not clean and tidy but the outside of the store looked attractive and inviting due to the window display of the stores clothing. The store is wheelchair accessible. On entering the store the customer was not greeted by a member of staff, but the atmosphere was welcoming and the temperature in the store was nice and warm. The inside of the store was clean, tidy and attractive. The customer was not asked by any member of staff if they needed assistance. The clothes were easy to view and reach, and all sizes were displayed.The changing room was clean, tidy and uncluttered. At the till there were between 1-3 checkouts open, there was less than five people in the queue, it did not take long to get served. The staff were not neatly dressed and wearing their name badges but they were polite and made good eye contact with the customer and thanked the customer for shopping at the store. The exit signs were not clearly illuminated in this store. The customer would recommend this to others as the staff were very friendly. But said that they should be better dressed. RecommendationsIn this part of the report we outline the recommendations that we would mak e to Next based on our findings from the mystery shopping exercise. These are our recommendations: Firstly we believe that they should retrain right across the board. From shop assistants right up to managers. There should be a strict set of rules implemented into this training and an exam must be passed by all employees. The employees will then get a certificate to say that they have completed this. The managers would have to complete a more advanced course, dealing with all the topics the employees have to with a few added extras.During this training the following must be covered. Employees 1. Customers must be greeted when they walk in the door to make them feel welcomed. 2. Staff must ask customers if they need assistance within thirty seconds of them being on the premises. 3. When speaking to customers, speak politely and mannerly and eye contact must be made. 4. Correct uniform must be worn at all times. Especially a name badge. 5. Staff must make sure that the changing rooms are clean and clutter free at all times. 6. Make sure all sizes are on display. 7.If there is a substantial queue at the till, get another staff member to open another till. 8. Always thank the customer for shopping at the store. Managers 1. Make sure the outside of the premises is kept clean. 2. Delegate different employees to particular jobs. And make sure everybody knows what there job is. 3. Make sure that the music in the shop is on, clear and loud enough so the customers can hear it but not so loud that it is deafening. 4. Keep on top of the uniform issue as this was one of the weak areas of the mystery shopping survey.Secondly we believe that you should have a review of all your stores and try and complete any work that needs to be done. Such as a new layout or renovation. For example. The store in Limerick was described as not very modern. Next is well known for having a fashionable range of clothing and if the shop does not reflect this image then customers will not come in to the store. Another example would be a lot of rails have been described as too high. You could combat this by making them lower or having a hook that customers would use to reach the clothing. Finally we would recommend that you should look at your staffing policy.On a number of visits to your stores it has pointed out that if there was more staff then it would have been a better shopping experience. Even one more extra staff member per store would make a huge difference. Conclusion Overall, the project was a huge success. The implementation of the Questionnaire gave us valuable opinions which were vital in being able to recommend changes for the service. The physical aspect of the mystery shopper enabled us to gather first hand, unbiased information which would have been very difficult to receive, had another method of research been chosen. Appendices:

Sublimus Deus and Requerimiento Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Sublimus Deus and Requerimiento - Essay Example The message is that Christ never fails, and it is the duty of those individuals possessing Catholic faith to teach all people, who are capable of receiving the doctrines of the faith (Pope Paul III, 1537).1 However, the enemy of mankind, who counters all superior deeds in order to destroy men, has developed all means of hindering the preaching of Lord’s word of Salvation to the human race. These enemies of the human race published that the West and South Indians among other individuals ought to be viewed as dumb beasts created for the Christians’ service. They claimed that these individuals are unable to accept 1the Catholic Faith. The Catholics exercise the power of God and seek to bring those individuals without Christian faith to acquire this faith. This implies that Indians are men who are capable of understanding the Catholic faith and are willing to receive it. As Pope Paul III (1537)1 notes, conversions thereof signed by any legal representative and sealed with any ecclesiastical dignitary seal the Catholics command some requirements as discussed below. 2 First, these Indians and the other individuals with no Christian faith should not be underprivileged of their freedom and the ownership of their property, even if they do not have faith in Jesus Christ. These people should not be enslaved, and they should freely and legally enjoy their freedom and the ownership of their property. The Catholics claim that if the contrary takes place, it shall be unsound and have no result. Secondly, these Indians and other individuals ought to be transformed to the belief of Jesus Christ through preaching the God’s word and through example of excellent and sacred living. The arguments in this piece are; first, non-Christians with no faith in Jesus Christ should be not underprivileged of their independence and the ownership of their possessions. Secondly, Christians ought to preach the God’s word to all

UK Government in Encouraging Sustainability in Businesses Essay

UK Government in Encouraging Sustainability in Businesses - Essay Example This essay stresses that  the concept of sustainability first became prominent with the publication of the Bruntland Report in 1987. The report defines sustainability as â€Å"meeting present needs without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs†.From this paper it is clear that  the concept of sustainability has evolved overtime since it was first defined. In earlier days, it was mainly an operational concern that focused on defensive strategies to cut waste and reduce organizational footprint. It then evolved and took a more strategic stance with focus shifting to value chains and innovation from waste and cost reduction. Right now, the concept pervades all organizational decision making.  This trend clearly shows a move towards rendering the term sustainability in business redundant as it will simply be how business is done. However in the present, businesses are consciously incorporating sustainability into their business decisions.   Most businesses express their sustainability goals through corporate social responsibility (CSR) commitments. CSR within an organisation is often composed of practises, policies and programs that are integrated throughout the business’s operations from decision making, processes to supply chain, which aim at ensuring current sustainable business operations taking into consideration future impacts.  Governments around the globe have increasingly grown aware of the significance of encouraging sustainability in businesses.... hows that many organizations are actively integrating and incorporating sustainability principles into their business operations, and the reasons behind this go far beyond reputation management. A sustainable business hence genuinely delivers environmental, economic and social benefits simultaneously in its operations while minimising the damage to society and the environment (Nidumolu, Prahalad, and Rangaswami, 2009:1). Most businesses express their sustainability goals through corporate social responsibility (CSR) commitments. CSR within an organisation is often composed of practises, policies and programs that are integrated throughout the business’s operations from decision making, processes to supply chain, which aim at ensuring current sustainable business operations taking into consideration future impacts (Petrini and Pozzebon, 2010: 364; Baumgartner and Ebner, 2010:77). Companies are increasingly inclined to incorporate society’s expectations of ethical busines s practices into their business strategies as a way of not only responding to pressures from stakeholders such as employees and consumers among others, but also exploring opportunities that create competitive advantage for the company. Assessment of the role of UK government in encouraging sustainability in businesses as compared to other stakeholders Governments around the globe have increasingly grown aware of the significance of encouraging sustainability in businesses. In the UK, the government has played a critical role in encouraging sustainability in businesses. The government’s role in sustainability adoption often takes a regulatory approach. This is unlike other stakeholders of an organisation which have different key roles to play in encouraging sustainability, for instance, employees

Organizational Cultures-The Jewelry Industry Case Study

Organizational Cultures-The Jewelry Industry - Case Study Example The company follows a long supply chain hence making it extremely important for the communication to be effective and efficient. The communication goes in sequence of hierarchy and follows supply chain management making it easier for the business and operations to run smoothly. The organization handles raw materials that are expensive hence the communication process and practices should be precise and to the point. To the organization the most important thing is the consumer confidence as the company deals with people's dreams, desires and their self-image that are enhanced or improved by the products that they produce. It is strictly advised that code of conduct should be followed by all the personals employed in a correct and effective way in order to maintain the ethical standards of the brand. The ethical issues related to this company mostly concern human rights and mining as both of these give rise to ethical and environmental issues. Organizational diversity is present in this company as it is present in almost all the organizations working with diamonds. The special emphasize is on the craftsmen ship and hand art to shape up the elements into beautiful diamonds hence people from all around the world become the part of the process of production (Joanne Martin 2001). Though new technology takes over diamond production and now manufacturing of diamonds is done through machines still a lot of organizational diversity is being experienced. The diversity is handled in the same way as it is handled in any other organization that is by creating cross-functional teams and taking into consideration the benefits of having a diverse work force. Dress and language (jargon) The dress and language at any organization that manufactures or produces diamonds is simple and easy to understand, as there is not much technicality apart from the machines that are being used to process the elements. The dress code used is normally the one used all over the world that is formal but non-formal dressing is acceptable. Organizational customs Organizations have different customs and rituals. At DeBears special get together are arranged that have people from different departments meet each other and discuss their side of work. This not only helps in making a community inside the organization but also helps in making employees of different departments learn how things are going in the same organizations but in different segments of the company. Stories of employees that have made history or were high performance workers are shared among employees to raise motivation levels. Conflict management As mentioned above the company consists of a long supply chain hence handling conflicts becomes difficult but special rules and regulations and reporting techniques are being followed to reduce this difficulty. Managers and mentors are there to prevent conflict and in situations of conflict special step-by-step procedures are followed to handle the situation. Observable organizational policies The observable policies include following of ethics, it should be made sure that each and every individual in the organization follows rules and regulations. Time punctuality is strictly followed. Daily operations are conducted in a proper hierarchical way. Reporting of misconduct to customers

CAPSTONE PROJECT Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

CAPSTONE PROJECT - Essay Example In our class, we were about 10 black students out of the total 70 students. Three girls and six boys. ‘Tell us your name,’ I remember that was the first question our history teacher asked when I was introduced as a new pupil (Manning 109). She was white, buxom, and motherly, but wearing horn-rimmed glasses that she would tilt in such an intimidating way if one did not answer her questions in class. ‘It is the white man who has made the black person who he is today.’ I remember I felt bad. It was an awkward moment. My father, a cotton picker, had affirmed in me that my race had an exciting history because we African Americans came from a placed he called Africa (Hamlett 167). The following lesson, I decided to ask questions if the teacher talked about the black people again (Caldwell 156). Encouraged by the rage I had seen in my mother last night, when Mrs. Stewart came and abused black people again, I

Marketing Plan Part B Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Marketing Plan Part B - Essay Example The Jacob’s Coffee Shop will try to make sure that the customer gets a good experience as they consume the products of the business. This is why the Jacob’s Coffee Shop has decided to use an app that the customer can use in choosing the design and nature of the product. Not many coffee shops offer the customer with a way to be in command of the way he gets his product. This will be very useful in making sure that the customer is engaged and maintained at Jacob’s Coffee Shop. The business will have the name of Jacob’s Coffee Shop. The name is inspired by a story in the bible where one person sold his inheritance for a bowl of well cooked soup. The soup that was served to him was so good that he could not resist and even sold his highly valued inheritance just for one bowl. In this regard, the Jacob’s Coffee Shop will provide its customers with such good coffee and beverage products that the customers will come back for more. While the main product for Jacob’s Coffee Shop will be coffee served at the coffee shop, Jacob’s Coffee Shop will take advantage of the available market to make sure that it has more business. In this regard, Jacob’s Coffee Shop will also offer deliveries especially to functions where coffee is needed in large quantities, at the request of the customer. As Gibson (2013) says, coffee shops must know how to extend their services in order to increase their revenues and profits. Word of mouth will be an important way to promote the business. All the initial customers will be asked kindly to spread the information about the shop to their friends and family. At the same time, to help the word of mouth strategy to work, there will be well designed colorful leaflets that will be made and each customer given a number of them to give to their friends and family. To engage the customers, the social media will be used. There are several social media that are available and they all offer both

Implementation, Strategic Controls, and Contingency Plans Essay - 1

Implementation, Strategic Controls, and Contingency Plans - Essay Example ntiation generic strategy with the market development grand strategy that would be instrumental in increasing the market share and financial income by as much as 20% per annum for the 3rd year and too increase further to 30% from the 4th to 5th years. Implementation of Differentiation Generic Strategy: (1) Caribou should enhance visibility with the positive attributes at the core of their mission and vision statements (Bockstedt & Goh, 2012, p. 237) by increasing advertisements and promotional efforts; (2) Caribou should build customer loyalty through differentiating the Caribou brand from other specialty coffee brands in terms of focusing on the quality advantage; (3) Caribou should not only focus on satisfying customers; but more so, on delighting them and providing them with exemplary personalized experience as they purchase the company’s products. approximately 7 new stores per annum for the 3rd to 4th years and to increase to 10 stores per annum starting on the 5th year; (2) Caribou is renovating the current store within the Chicago market; (3) it will reintroduce a unique brand to the residents that has a customized Chicago-centric look and taste; (4) Caribou should expand beyond United States and would start operation in the Middle East, Colombia, and some parts of Europe starting from the 3rd year to the 5th year time period. From among the noted activities for the strategies identified, the following are emphasized: (1) development of a franchising pipeline in the non-traditional locations like airports, offices, and hospitals within United States; (2) opening of new stores within strategic locations in the U.S.; (3) renovation of the Chicago store; (4) expansion to international markets. The milestones include: (1) the expansion which would mark the company first-owned store for the past five years; (2) expanding into international markets; and (3) renovating the current store in the Chicago market. Current and future resources would be primarily

Tradeswomen in Early America Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Tradeswomen in Early America - Essay Example Women of all races were expected to do their share of work, and it would have been considered odd or even unthinkable for them to refuse. Interestingly enough, many women actually became shoemakers during the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, but societal attitudes toward this work were unsurprising given the period. Men who made shoes for a living did precisely that - they were skilled artisans and expected to be compensated for their work. Women, however, often worked at home rather than in a shop and performed exactly the same work for little or no wages. For example, in her book Men, Women, and Work, Blewett (1990) recounts the story of Sarah Smith Emery, who lived in Essex County, Massachusetts in the late eighteenth century, and whose uncles Joe and Ben ran a shoe-making store. One time, the men received an order for "one hundred pairs of sealskin boots that had to be finished in five days" (p. 4). She recounts how, after Sarah had stitched for five days, her fianc found her "exhausted and covered with dirty sealskin oilHer account of the incident mentions no wages paid to her for the work" (p. 4). In a case such as this, a woman became a virtual slave to her family.

About being a Police Officer Essay Example for Free

About being a Police Officer Essay If you are interested in becoming a police officer, you must be aware of how tough it is to get the job. You have to go through hard mental and physical screening and training, and for good reason. Police work is a noble career, but it can also be a difficult life. I choose this topic because I know much about it already but I want to learn more because I might end up being in Law Enforcement. Being a Police Officer is not as hard as it looks you having to be fit. To become a police officer, you must pass a fitness test, and you will be required to accomplish various fitness challenges at the police academy. Its not all action all the time. You will need to write reports of what happened, and those reports must be accurate and detailed because they can be used as evidence in court. See more: Old Age Problem essay Crime wont stop when youre off duty. You may be called upon to assist with a situation at any time. However, these extra hours often come with overtime pay. The communitys safety is in your hands, and your work will not always be respected. You have to be able to tolerate people not trusting you because of the actions of other police officers, and you may find yourself rebuilding trust on a regular basis. Not only will you work on a daily basis with your partner, but you must also represent the police to the community. Your every action will be under scrutiny, either by your supervisor, your peers or the public at large. This is what I know before I start learning more about being a Police Officer.

Child labour in the Philippines

Child labour in the Philippines Child labour in the Philippines Introduction Do you know where that pretty shirt you are wearing was made? Or, that soccer ball you love to play with so much? Do you know if it was made in a fair and ethical way, or made by hard working, poor children who should be spending their time playing and in the school benches? This essay will be about child labour in the Philippines. Child labour is an important issue because affects people in a negative way, and because it, unfortunately, still happens a lot. There are different views on this issue that will be discussed in this essay. This essay will consider arguments for and against child labour in the Philippines, with factors such as money, conditions, health and education. Child labour is a term that is known for a very long time. Child labour stands for: employment of boys and girls when they are too young to work for hire, or when they are employed at jobs that are unsafe and/or unsuitable for their age (according to the US department of Labour). The legal age limit is shown in the Philippines is shown in the following article: Art. 139. Minimum Employable Age. (a) No child below fifteen (15) years of age shall be employed, except when he works directly under the sole responsibility of his parents or guardian, and his employment does not in any way interfere with his schooling.[1] The Philippines is a young nation with a high percentage of young people in its overall population. In the past, 1995-1997, one sixth of the children worked. Around this time 22.4 million children where aged between 5-17, which meant that this age group was about one third of the overall population of the Philippines at that time. (Initiating and Mobilizing Action Against Child Labor in the Philippines). Money Money is one of the main reasons why children work in the Philippines. The Philippines is a poor country. Many households depend on children to work. The contribution of kids is financially needed within these households. According to the NSCB (National statistical Coordination Board)[2], who investigated the poverty statistics for the government, thirty three out of one hundred Filipinos were poor in 2006, compared to thirty in 2003. Poverty incidence increased to 26.9% for families in 2006 compared to 24.4% in 2003. The investigation also shows that, in 2006, a Filipino family comprising of five members needed a monthly income of 4,1477 PhP (Philipine Pesos) to be able to sustain their familys minimum basic food needs, an increase of 23% from 2003. To be able to provide for both food and nonfood basic requirements, a family of five needed 6,274 PhP monthly income in 2006, an increase of more than 22% from 2003. The schools in the Philippines are tuition free, but the parents have to pay for the other expenses. The expenses include uniforms, projects and materials. In fact, even if schools would be cheaper, they still wouldnt be able to pay for it; since the families are so poor they need the children to work as well. There are also positive sides of child labour. Both children and employers profit from child labour. The children benefit from child labour by earning money for the work they do. Children that work and contribute to the total income of their family, help the family survive. Usually, the parents cannot afford food and other needs for every family member, that is why the childrens contribution is need. Not working could lead to starvation, and eventually, to death. Children working in factories receive between 15 and 25 pesos per day (approximately 61 cents to $1) . The children in mines reportedly earn between 40 and 50 pesos per day (approximately $1.62 to $2). Older packers earn between 250 and 300 pesos per day (approximately $10 to $12).[3] Employers also benefit from child labour, because the salary of children is lower than those of adults. Low salary allows the employer to sell cheaper goods, and with cheaper goods, the employers can generate more profit. As shown above the difference in salary is high Conditions/health children are significantly smaller than adults. In some sectors, like in the mines, this might come in handy, because children fit in places and holes adults do not. Children are also said to have more energy than adults, which means they can be more productive and maybe even work a bit longer. Children also have smaller hands, which makes them work more precise. Even though children seem perfect for these kind of jobs, the conditions they have to work in affect their health. Many of the kids that work, work in hazardous and dangerous areas, such as mines and factories. Not only is working in mines and agriculture dangerous for the children, some children are even forced to work as child prostitutes, in the porn industry, as child soldiers or as servants. Another bad side to child labour is that children are weaker than adults, and have to do heavy work that affects their health. Children also have to work long hours. Long hours take toll on childrens not fully developed body. Education Education is very important. Schools are the childrens sources to obtain knowledge and other information. Instead of working, children should learn from books. Without education, the hope of a better life is far away, since the probability of those children ending up with a good job is low. Labour often interferes with childrens education. There are children that work and attend school. This is bad for the child, since the child cannot only focus on school but still has the responsibility of earning money. Children that do not attend school might end up being poor, which might result in their kids having to work. This might become a vicious circle. Children that work have the advantage of learning, from an early age, how to deal with money. The children get taught how to deal with money and they end up knowing the value of money. They also learn how it feels to have responsibilities and how to provide for their families. Conclusion In conclusion, there are a lot of factors that you should consider before forming an opinion about child labour in the Philippines. Factors like, money, education, health and conditions. Children should have the chance to be a children. They should spend time playing and learning one another in school, and not wasting away their youth in hazardous factories. Every child has the right to have basic human needs, such as a healthy environment, shelter, nutrition, clean water, proper education and clothes. According to Unicef, a possible solution would be: ‘One of the keys would be ensuring that all children go to school and that their education is of good quality.[4] [1] The Philippines National Laws, http://ipecphils.tripod.com/phillaws/p2_2.htm [2] NSCB, http://www.nscb.gov.ph/pressreleases/2008/PR-200803-SS2-02_pov.asp [3] United States Department of Labor, http://www.dol.gov/ilab/media/reports/iclp/sweat/philippines.htm [4] Unicef, http://www.unicef.org/protection/index_childlabour.html

Essay --

Before the conquest of Gaul consulship was yet to be decided as the senate were being secured by massive bribery from Marcus Bibulous as a part of an anti- caesarean election although failed to prevent Caesars election. Caesar had than succeeded in organising an irresistible coalition of political bosses which included (Pompey and Crassus) which became the first triumvirate. The alliance was affectively sealed by Pompey marrying Caesars only child Julia. The Gallic war (58-51 BC) was the conflict in which Julius Caesar emerged as a great military leader after an earlier career as a politician. A conflict that began with an attempt to preserve stability on the borders of Roman province Transalpine Gaul soon turned into a war of conquest. Only after putting down three major Gallic revolts. Caesar described Gaul as being split into three sections â€Å"Omniun Gallo in tres partes divisa est†- Commentarri de Bello Gallico. The north east of the country was populated by the Belgae, the centre of the country was inhabited by the Celts and the area beyond the Garonne River was populated by the Aquitani. As Gaul was split up Caesar effectively able to divide and conquer. Rome’s new province was officially called Transalpine Gaul to distinguish it from Cisalpine Gaul in northern Italy. Transalpine Gaul governed separately from Cisalpine Gaul but in 59 BC the governor of Transalpine Gaul died and the province was assigned to Caesar. Cisalpine Gaul also owned by Caesar gave him a military recruiting ground which gave Caesar a springboard for the conquest beyond Romeâ₠¬â„¢s North West frontier. In 58 BC Rome’s northwest frontier, ran from the Alps down the left bank of the upper Rhone River to Pyrenees, skirting the south eastern foot of the Cevennes.... ...and gave the name for the month July. Although it was said the invasions were pre-emptive it is believed they were fought primarily to boost Caesars political career and pay of his massive debts. His achievements over the defeat of Gaul regardless still amazing as the Romans didn’t possess any great superiority in the military equipment over the north European barbarians. The Gallic Calvary was far superior to Rome but Rome’s military superiority lay in its master of strategy in tactics, discipline and military engineering. In Caesars mind his conquest of Gaul was probably carried out as a means to his ultimate end. He was acquiring the military manpower; the plunder and the prestige that he needed to secure a freehand for the prosecution of the task of reorganizing the roman state and the rest of the Greco- Roman world. â€Å"I came, I saw, I conquered†- Julius Caesar.

Pushkins The Queen of Spades Essay -- Pushkin Queen of Spades Essays

Pushkin's The Queen of Spades French connoisseurs already know Pushkin's The Queen of Spades in Mà ©rimà ©e's translation. It might appear impertinent to offer now a new version, and I do not doubt that the earlier one will appear more elegant than this one, which has no merit other than its scrupulous exactness. That is its justification. A preoccupation with explaining and rounding off induced Mà ©rimà ©e to blunt somewhat the crystalline peaks of the tale. We have resisted adding anything to Pushkin's clean and spare style, with its slender grace, which hums like a taut string. When Pushkin writes: Herman quivered like a tiger, Mà ©rimà ©e adds: ... lying in wait. When he has Lisaveta bend over a book, Mà ©rimà ©e says gracefully. This charming writer thus marks his own manner, and if some criticize his dryness it is clear here that the criticism is ill-founded, or, at least, that only by comparison with the lush style of the writers of his period can Mà ©rimà ©e's style seem so unadorned to us. The clarity of Pushkin, on the other hand, chafes him, and nothing shows that better than a study of this translation. Poets, Pushkin wrote, often sin by neglect of simplicity and truth; they pursue all manner of external effects. The pursuit of form sweeps them toward exaggeration and bombast. He criticized in Hugo, whom he admired, an absence of simplicity. Life is lacking in him, he wrote. In other words, truth is absent. The strangeness of most Russian writers, including the greatest among them, often baffles the French reader, and indeed, sometimes repels him; but I confess that it is the absence of strangeness in Pushkin that confounds me. Or at least what baffles me, is to see that Dostoevsky, that genius so prodigi... ...offers us geniuses like Shakespeare, Cervantes, Schiller. But show me, even one among them all, who possesses to the same degree as Pushkin the capacity for universal comprehension. And again: Pushkin was the only one among the poets who succeeded in assuming the soul of other poets. But according to Dostoevsky it is to his profoundly Russian character that Pushkin owes his universality, for the mission of each Russian is doubtless a universal mission. ... To become truly a Russian, he adds, to become completely Russianmeans to feel oneself brother to all men. The Queen of Spades, that brief masterpiece, offers us an excellent example of the admirable poetic qualities of Pushkin and his gift for self-effacement. Work Cited Gide, Andre. "Preface to The Queen of Spades." Reflections on Literature and Morality. New York: Meridian Books, 1959.

Essay --

The current effects of immigration throughout the United States has had a negative impact on its economy. Whether foreigners are legal permanent immigrants or illegal occupants, nations must diligently keep track of all individuals. This is a brief analysis on how immigrants impact the U.S and strategies to minimize their effects on this nation. In addition, the U.S must implement and monitor plans of action to lessen unemployment of citizens and reduce the excessive use of benefits and resources by immigrants. The negative impact immigration has on the U.S Economy Immigration has a significant negative impact on the U.S economy. Consequently, amplifying the work demand between the early 80's thru the end of the 90's, immigration diminished the median, yearly net income of a native born citizen of the United States roughly $1,700. Among those born on U.S. soil,who didn't possess a high school diploma, approximately the most indigent ten percent of all workers, the assessed consequence was even greater, causing a reduction in pay by nearly 8 percent. The disadvantageous effects on United States endemic African-American and Latin laborers are somewhat greater than on Caucasians, due to the fact that a much bigger percentage of non-majority ethnic groups are in point-blank rivalry with non-citizens. The lower rate of pay happens irrespective of whether they are documented or undocumented aliens. It's the existence of extra employees that brings about a reduction in pay, not their legitimacy (Davidson, 2006). Many United States citizens are unemployed and should not have to compete with immigrants in order to support themselves or their families. For example, Pedro Chan, a foreigner from Guatemala, illegally came to the U.S in 2... ...legal, including minors. Foreign juveniles, particularly asylum-seeking persons, have been delayed in immigration detainment facilities between 2 to 12 months (Line & Poon, 2013). The Ends Justifies the Means The United States is a wonderful place for opportunities, but it should be first and foremost available and accountable to it's citizens. U.S. benefits and services should be allocated only to American-born citizens with the exception of life or death emergencies. Educational benefits/subsidies should be exclusively for our American-born children and college-seeking citizens. Furthermore, there must be a cohesive strategy in place to minimize the amount of legal permanent residents as well as stopping illegal immigration. Lastly, the United States must learn from their past mistakes and acquire knowledge from other nations on how best to deal with immigrants!

The Pervasive Impact of Culture on International Negotiations

The pervasive impact of culture on international negotiations The primary purpose of this section is to demonstrate the extent of cultural differences in negotiation styles and how these differences can cause problems in international business negotiations. The reader will note that national culture does not determine negotiation behavior. Rather, national culture is one of many factors that influence behavior at the negotiation table, albeit an important one. For example, gender, organizational culture, international experience, industry or regional background can all be important influences as well.Of course, stereotypes of all kinds are dangerous, and international negotiators must get to know the people they are working with, not just their culture, country, or company. The material here is based on systematic study of international negotiation behavior over the last three decades in which the negotiation styles of more than 1,500 businesspeople in 17 countries (21 cultures) were considered. The work involved interviews with experienced executives and participant observations in the field, as well as behavioral science laboratory work including surveys and analyses of videotaped negotiations.The countries studied were Japan, S. Korea, China (Tianjin, Guangzhou, and Hong Kong), Vietnam, Taiwan, the Philippines, Russia, Israel, Norway, the Czech Republic, Germany, France, the United Kingdom, Spain, Brazil, Mexico, Canada (English-speakers and French-speakers), and the United States. The countries were chosen because they constitute America’s most important present and future trading partners. Looking broadly across the several cultures, two important lessons stand out. The first is that regional generalizations very often are not correct.For example, Japanese and Korean negotiation styles are quite similar in some ways, but in other ways they could not be more different. The second lesson learned from the research is that Japan is an exceptional place: On almost every dimension of negotiation style considered, the Japanese are on or near the end of the scale. For example, the Japanese use the lowest amount of eye contact of the cultures studied. Sometimes, Americans are on the other end. But actually, most of the time Americans are somewhere in the middle. The reader will see this evinced in the data presented in this section.The Japanese approach, however, is most distinct, even sui generis. Cultural differences cause four kinds of problems in international business negotiations, at the levels of: Language Nonverbal behaviors Values Thinking and decision-making processes The order is important; the problems lower on the list are more serious because they are more subtle. For example, two negotiators would notice immediately if one were speaking Japanese and the other German. The solution to the problem may be as simple as hiring an interpreter or talking in a common third language, or it may be as difficult as learning a languag e.Regardless of the solution, the problem is obvious. Cultural differences in nonverbal behaviors, on the other hand, are almost always hidden below our awareness. That is to say, in a face-to-face negotiation participants nonverbally—and more subtly—give off and take in a great deal of information. Some experts argue that this information is more important than verbal information. Almost all this signaling goes on below our levels of consciousness. When the nonverbal signals from foreign partners are different, negotiators are most apt to misinterpret them without even being conscious of the mistake.For example, when a French client consistently interrupts, Americans tend to feel uncomfortable without noticing exactly why. In this manner, interpersonal friction often colors business relationships, goes undetected, and, consequently, goes uncorrected. Differences in values and thinking and decision-making processes are hidden even deeper and therefore are even harder t o diagnose and therefore cure. These differences are discussed below, starting with language and nonverbal behaviors.

An Analysis of an Article in the Big Issue called Sun Vampires Essay

The Big Issue is published to aid the homeless, seeking to raise money for people who are in this situation. The Big Issue is only sold by vendors, homeless themselves, on the streets of all our major cities and towns. The ‘target group’ for sales is seen to those who might be sympathetic to the dilemma of the homeless, to those who are fortunate themselves to have homes and jobs, who take an interest in society as a whole rather than just themselves as individuals, who are also aware of the current issues. The readers are to be relatively prosperous, also young rather than middle-aged. The young readers have most probably heard of the Bros (a teen pop duo of the late 80’s) and also Peter Andre (popular at the time of publication, but hardly an enduring household name). The reader might be in the position of being able to spend 399 a year on a suntanning course. The reader is more likely to respond to the style of writing that uses current colloquial or jargon exp ressions â€Å"And let’s face it†, â€Å"one hell of a habit† and â€Å"fork out† than a style that they regard as being posh and old-fashioned. The message is though a horrific one but by using the generally speaking, light-hearted tone. Then there is no worry in frightening the reader, but if the your to frighten the casual reader and the reader were to associate this emotion with The Big Issue. For then the reader might never but another a copy again, therefore defeating the whole purpose of what is published for. The writer exclaims to the reader that sunbeds are dangerous and those who uses them are stupid and vain. The suppliers of the habit are abusive. The message is serious but the tone is generally light-hearted. The mood does change though, the evidence supplied by Jane Horwood is unwelcoming, and that provided by a medical expert is inflexible. The purpose of a headline is to attract the attention of a casual browser. Here the writer uses paradox. The reader is attracted firstly by the use of the word â€Å"vampires†, because our enjoyment of horror stories. The idea of the vampires being associated with sun, which is means death to them. The reader becomes eye-catchingly incongruous; curiosity is aroused so the reader wants to read on. â€Å"Desperate for a sun fix† straight away makes us think of a drug addiction, the gravity which is reinforced by the sinister implications of â€Å"coffins†, both images are very different but are powerful images. Then by a newly-coined image, â€Å"tanorexics†, this is a pun. However a pun is usually used humorously, as a joke, which associates two images. In this case this pun might make the reader have mixed emotions. By using the really amusing though, to associate what is usually regarded as a pastime with the desperately psychological problem of anorexia. The illustration is made to seen very unprofessional, but it does catch the browsers attention. The simultaneous associations with the coffins and cooked meat work. The writer forces the readers to place themselves in the situation, by using the repletion of â€Å"you† and â€Å"you’re†. The article seeks to mock the sunbed. The opening uses ridiculous pictures â€Å"plastic cocoon†, â€Å"weird blue light†. The idea of the users being profoundly stupid, by mad suggestions. â€Å"Have you been abducted by aliens for experimental tests?† In the second paragraph the tone is unbreakable by another equally ridiculous picture. â€Å"Walking raisins† implying that the sun has similar effects on human skin as it has on grapes. The writer soon does become rather serous, after making sure that our interests has been attracted by other means. Suddenly suntanning become dangerous. Most people are aware of the dangers of smoking, so the bluntness of â€Å"It’s like smoking† hits hard. The scenario of losing an infant as a result of suntanning is distressing. There are no jokes in this section. â€Å"Religiously† and â€Å"Confesses† which underlines the importance of the issue for the writer. We all know the adverts on television in which ‘scientists’ in white coats are used to impress upon us the wonderful properties of toothpastes or headache cures. We naturally believe what we are told by experts. So Doctor Bishop is brought into the argument and a consultant dermatologist. We do not comprehend the jargon doctor’s use, but we always impressed by their specific language. We may not know what a UVB or UVA rays are and what they do not us. However most of us are inclined to believe what those who do know tell us about them. It is interesting that the writer is afraid perhaps of loosing their audience by using too many expressions that the general public do not understand, but the writer does give us some layman’s explanation, as in the case of collagen and of elastin. Industries are commercial enterprises by mean of which people make money. We tend to see them in a big scale like ‘the music industry’. Where the profit motive is of the smallest significance, aren’t referred to as industries. The obvious implication of describing sun-tanning as industry is that its practitioners are only interested in profiting from their clients’ gullibility. Earlier we asked to feel sympathetic towards Jane Horwood suffering and were asked to understand that for her taking that wise decision, to end her habit. On the other hand Victoria Williams seems childish and selfish â€Å"I wanted that heat and warmth on my body†. In the final paragraph the writer completely ridicules the ideas of suntanning. â€Å"Who says tanning isn’t trendy?† is, perhaps, another dig aimed at the people of the media, especially those who are advertising the industry. â€Å"Secretive† implies that those who carry on suntanning are aware of the dangers. â€Å"It seemed his rugged outdoor tan was indoor variety† accusing the ex political leader of using sunbeds to give a false impression of his life to the public. â€Å"It make you look wealthier, like you can afford regular holidays† seems false and unfashionably materialistic set against own background. â€Å"Essex Man† is a term of abuse- it reminds us of sub-human species associated with a particular 1980’s stereotype, the selfish individual concerned only with himself and what he can get his hands on. This is a very cleverly written piece, in which the writer has matched their tone to their readership without compromising the sincerity and, ultimately, the intensity of their feeling. This however can’t be coincidence. â€Å"Barking,† Echoes the phrase, â€Å"barking mad† and leave s in doubt how the writer feels about â€Å"tanorexics†. It can refer back to the â€Å"Essex Man† There no attempt at fairness in this piece, there is no balance of opinions, so asking the reader to draw their conclusions. The writer does have a point to make and scarcely attempts that there might be together points of view. Counter argument, when they appear, tend to be ridiculed, We probably haven’t learned anything new about suntanning, perhaps little in those who indulger in it, but the pieces might be considered as being amusing.

Thermodynamics And Kinetics Of Materials And Processes Environmental Sciences Essay

In natural philosophies, thermodynamics ( from the Greek I?I ­I?I?I · therme, intending â€Å" heat † and I?I?I?I ±I?I?I‚ , dynamis, intending â€Å" power † ) is the survey of energy transition between heat and mechanical work, and later the macroscopic variables such as temperature, volume and force per unit area. Its primogenitor, based on statistical anticipations of the corporate gesture of atoms from their microscopic behaviour, is the field of statistical thermodynamics ( or statistical mechanics ) , a subdivision of statistical natural philosophies. Thermodynamicss is the scientific discipline which relates kineticss of fluids with thermic and energy, thermodynamics trades with heat, work, and power. In this study a set of statements and expressions are described and explained.State of a System, 0th jurisprudence of thermodynamics:The zeroth jurisprudence of thermodynamics provinces that when two organic structures have equality of temperature with a 3rd organic structure, they in bend equality of temperature with each other [ Gordon J. Van Wylen ] . If A, B, and C are systems or organic structures, we said that the organic structures or the systems are in thermic equilibrium or changeless temperature, A and B in thermic equilibrium and B and C are in thermic equilibrium besides. if T ( A ) = T ( B ) and T ( B ) = T ( C ) so T ( A ) = T ( C ) .Figure ( 1 ) : Thermal equilibrium between two organic structures.Work, Heat, 1th jurisprudence of thermodynamics:The first jurisprudence of thermodynamics provinces that during a rhythm a system ( command mass ) undergoes, the cyclic integral of the heat is relative to the cyclic integral of the work [ Gordon J. Van Wylen ] . In another words the preservation of energy provinces that the alteration in the internal energy of any closed system equal the heat added to the system minus the work done by the system. the undermentioned equation shows that: See Piston cylinder system with H2O inside the cylinder, province ( 1 ) as shown in figure ( 2 ) below shows the initial province of the system ( H2O has internal energy ) and it is in equilibrium province, when an external burden applied to the Piston the system transferred to province ( 2 ) and work and heat transferred into and from the system to make to the 2nd equilibrium place ( province 2 ) .Figure ( 2 ) : Application of the first jurisprudence of thermodynamics.Internal Energy, Expansion Work:The internal energy is a thermodynamic belongings ; besides it can be defined as the sum of random energy included in certain sum of the mater due to the internal motion of atoms. Besides it is extended belongings because it depends on the mass of the system. The sum of internal energy of any stuff as thermodynamic belongings depends on the mass of the organic structure and it specific heat capacity, for illustration if we increase the temperature of metal its internal energy increased based on the temperature difference, besides metals have high specific heat capacity than liquids.Figure ( 3 ) : Comparison between metal and ice based on the internal energy.Heat content:The heat content is defined as the heat transportation during the procedure which is given in the footings of the alteration in internal energy, force per unit area and volume [ Gordon J. Van Wylen ] . The undermentioned equation shows the chief parametric quantities of heat content. The thermodynamic potency H was introduced by the Dutch physicist Kamerlingh Onnes in early twentieth century in the undermentioned signifier: Where Tocopherol represents the energy of the system. In the absence of an external field, the heat content may be defined, as it is by and large known, by: where ( all units given in SI ) H is the heat content ( in Js ) , U is the internal energy ( in Js ) , P is the force per unit area of the system, ( in Pas ) , and V is the volume, ( in three-dimensional metres ) . Form pV ( sometimes called â€Å" flow work † ) is motivated by the undermentioned illustration of an isobaric procedure. Gas bring forthing heat ( by, for illustration, a chemical reaction ) in a cylinder pushes a Piston, keeping changeless force per unit area P and adding to its thermic energy. The force is calculated from the country A of the Piston and definition of force per unit area P = F/A: the force is F = pA. By definition, work W done is W = Fx, where ten is the distance traversed. Uniting gives W = pax, and the merchandise Ax is the volume traversed by the Piston: Ax = V. Thus, the work done by the gas is W = pV, where P is a changeless force per unit area and V the enlargement of volume. Including this term allows the treatment of energy alterations when non merely temperature, but besides volume or force per unit area are changed. The enthalpy alteration can be defined I†H = I†U + W = I†U + I† ( pV ) , where I†U is the thermic energy due to warming of the gas during the enlargement, and W the work done on the Piston.Joule-Thomson Experiment:Joule-Thomson experiment is used to find the C dioxide coefficient. And comparing the experimental value with the deliberate value. Figure ( 3 ) shows the experimental setup of Joule-Thomson experiment.Figure ( 3 ) : Joule-Thomson experimental apparatus ( Taylor ) .The fluid allowed fluxing steadily from a high force per unit area to low force per unit area through a porous stopper inserted in a pipe. At steady conditions the pipe is insulated from any heat loss to environing, the flow speed should be low so the differences in kinetic energy between the upstream and the downstream are negligible. Measurements ‘ of temperature and force per unit area up watercourse and downstream the media should be taken ( G.F.C. Rogers ) . Ploting curves for both warming and chilling procedure for force per unit area and temperature of the gas, the aforethought curves are shown in figure ( 4 ) .Figure ( 4 ) : Isenthalpic curves and the enthalpy inversion curve ( Taylor ) .Adiabatic Procedures:Adiabatic means the procedure during which the heat is prevented from traversing the boundary of the system ( G.F.C. Rogers ) . The system is thermally insulated from the environing conditions, so for adiabatic procedure the first jurisprudence of thermodynamics is reduced to the alteration in internal energy peers the work done by the system or on the system.Figure ( 5 ) : Adiabatic procedure in P-V diagram ( G.F.C. Rogers ) .What is Thermochemistry:Thermochemistry is the survey of energy produced or absorbed in chemical reactions and any physical transmutation such as runing or boiling. Thermochemistry, by and large, is concerned with the energy exchange attach toing transmutations, such as commixture, stage passages, chemical r eactions, and including computations of such measures as the heat capacity, heat of burning, heat of formation, heat content, and free energy ( E.H. Cole ) . Thermochemistry remainders on two generalisations. Stated in modern footings, they are as follows: Lavoisier and Laplace ‘s jurisprudence ( 1780 ) : The energy alteration attach toing any transmutation is equal and antonym of energy alteration attach toing the contrary procedure. Hess ‘s jurisprudence ( 1840 ) : The energy alteration attach toing any transmutation is the same whether the procedure occurs in one measure or many.Figure ( 6 ) : Energy motion ( www.howstuffworks.com ) .What is Calorimetry:The word calorimetry was derived from the lateen word calor which means heat and Greek word metry which means step ; it is the scientific discipline of mensurating the sum of heat. To mensurate the energy produced from certain fuel or affair calorimeter is used. Calorimeter is a device consists of barrel filled with H2O and a bomb filled with fuel ( oil fuel or coal ) besides and electric circuit is used to bring forth electrical signal to fire the discharge inside the bomb, after that the heat transportations to the H2O inside the calorimeter, by mensurating the initial and concluding H2O temperature and cognizing the H2O sum in the calorimeter, the sum of heat green goods from the fuel discharge can be estimated. The figure below shows the calorimeter.Fi gure ( 7 ) : Calorimeter ( E.H. Cole ) .Second Law of Thermodynamicss:The 2nd jurisprudence of thermodynamics is the jurisprudence of heat and power, it can be expressed as: It is impossible to do an engine to run in a ( thermodynamics ) rhythm, in which the lone interactions are positive work done on the milieus and heat transportation from a system which remains at changeless temperature ( E.H. Cole ) .Figure ( 8 ) : The schematic of 2nd jurisprudence of thermodynamics ( www.howstuffworks.com ) .The undermentioned expression of the jurisprudence has been proposed: It is impossible to build a heat-engine rhythm which will bring forth merely the consequence of lifting a weight ( net work or shaft work ) if heat is exchanged with a individual thermal reservoir ( Max Planck ) , and heat can non of itself flow from a colder to a hotter system ( Rudolf Clausius ) .Carnot Cycle:Said Carnot a Gallic scientist of the early 19th century, he proposed a heat engine rhythm based on the 2nd jurisprudence of thermodynamics. Carnot said that the work by the heat engine rhythm increased by increasing the temperature differences between the hot and the cold reservoirs ( Leonard ) . So the efficiency of Carnot rhythm depends on the temperatures of the hot and cold reservoirs.Figure ( 9 ) : Caront rhythm in Pressure-Volume diagram, ( www.howstuffworks.com ) .The public presentation of heat engine rhythm nine expressed as the dividend divided by the cost, the intent of power rhythm is to present shaft work, which is the dividend. The cost depends on the heat suppl y from the hot reservoir.Third jurisprudence of Thermodynamicss and absolute information:The Third Law of Thermodynamics is the lesser known of the three major thermodynamic Torahs. Together, these Torahs help organize the foundations of modern scientific discipline. The Torahs of thermodynamics are absolute physical Torahs everything in the discernible existence is capable to them. Like clip or gravitation, nil in the existence is exempt from these Torahs. In its simplest signifier, the Third Law of Thermodynamics relates the information ( entropy ) of affair to its absolute temperature ( G.F.C Rogers ) . The Third Law of Thermodynamics refers to a province known as â€Å" absolute nothing. † This is the bottom point on the Kelvin temperature graduated table. The Kelvin graduated table is absolute, intending 0A ° Kelvin is mathematically the lowest possible temperature in the existence. This corresponds to about -273.15A ° Celsius, or -459.7 Fahrenheit. In actuality, no object or system can hold a temperature of nothing Kelvin, because of the Second Law of Thermodynamics. The Second Law, in portion, implies that heat can ne'er spontaneously move from a colder organic structure to a hotter organic structure. So, as a system approaches absolute zero, it will finally hold to pull energy from whatever systems are nearby. If it draws energy, it can ne'er obtain absolute nothing. So, this province is non physically possible, but is a mathematical bound of the existence. In its shortest signifier, the Third Law of Thermodynamics says: â€Å" The information of a pure perfect crystal is zero ( 0 ) at nothing Kelvin ( 0A ° K ) . † Entropy is a belongings of affair and energy discussed by the Second Law of Thermodynamics. The Third Law of Thermodynamics means that as the temperature of a system approaches absolute zero, its information approaches a changeless ( for pure perfect crystals, this invariable is zero ) . A pure perfect crystal is one in which every molecule is indistinguishable, and the molecular alliance is absolutely even throughout the substance. For non-pure crystals, or those with less-than perfect alliance, there will be some energy associated with the imperfectnesss, so the information can non go nothing. The Third Law of Thermodynamics can be visualized by believing about H2O. Water in gas signifier has molecules that can travel about really freely. Water vapour has really high information ( entropy ) . As the gas cools, it becomes liquid. The liquid H2O molecules can still travel about, but non as freely. They have lost some information. When the H2O cools farther, it becomes solid ice. The solid H2O molecules can no longer travel freely, but can merely vibrate within the ice crystals. The information is now really low. As the H2O is cooled more, closer and closer to absolute zero, the quiver of the molecules diminishes. If the solid H2O reached absolute nothing, all molecul ar gesture would halt wholly. At this point, the H2O would hold no information ( entropy ) at all.Standards of Equilibrium:The province of system is determined by the molecules within the system boundaries. The equilibrium has different significances, if we have material in solid or liquid stage we said that stuff is in stage equilibrium if its stage does non alter. Besides if the province of the stuff is changeless we said that stuff in thermodynamic equilibrium ( William C. Reynolds ) . The macroscopic belongingss that can in rule be measured as a map of the thermodynamic equilibrium province and that are in some manner relevant to energy are called thermodynamic equilibrium. Any conglomerate characteristic of all the molecules, such as their entire energy, is a thermodynamic belongings. When the province is fixed the thermodynamics belongingss are fixed.13. Helmholtz and Gibbs free energy:The thermodynamics potencies consists of four measures, these measures are internal energy, the heat content, the Helmholtz free energy and the Gibbs free energy. So Helmholtz and Gibbs are portion of thermodynamics possible. The Helmholtz free energy depends on the internal energy, temperature, and information. Equation below shows the relation between internal energy, absolute temperature, and information in Helmholtz free energy equation. Gibbs free energy as shown in equation below depends on internal energy, absolute temperature, information, absolute force per unit area, and the concluding volume. The four thermodynamic potencies are related by beginnings of the â€Å" energy from the environment † term TS and the â€Å" enlargement work † term PV. A mnemotechnic diagram suggested by Schroeder can assist you maintain path of the relationships between the four thermodynamic potencies.14. Hess ‘s jurisprudence:Hess ‘s jurisprudence states that the energy alteration in any chemical or physical reaction does non depend on the way or figure of stairss required to finish this reaction.Figure ( 10 ) : Chemical reaction stairss with energy sum.The I†H for a individual reaction can be calculated from the difference between the heats of formation of the merchandises minus the heat of formation of the reactants. In mathematical footings:15. Clausius-Clapeyron equation:The Clausius-Clapeyron equation relates the fluctuation of force per unit area with temperature along the saturated-vapor ( or liquid ) line to the heat content and volume of vaporisation. Th is equation is utile in building a graphical or tabular equation of province from a lower limit of experimental measurings ( Williams C. Reynolds ) . The clausius-Clapeyron equation allows gauging the vapor force per unit area at any temperature if the heat content of vaporisation and vapor force per unit area at some temperatures are known,16. Ideal Solution and Non-ideal Solution:In chemical science, an ideal solution or ideal mixture is a solution in which the heat content of solution ( or â€Å" heat content of blending † ) is zero ; [ 1 ] the closer to zero the heat content of solution is, the more â€Å" ideal † the behaviour of the solution becomes. Equivalently, an ideal mixture is one in which the activity coefficients ( which step divergence from ideality ) are equal to one ( Wikipedia, the free encyclopaedia ) . A solution whose behaviour does non conform to that of an ideal solution ; that is, the behaviour is non predictable over a broad scope of concentrations and temperatures by the usage of Raoult ‘s jurisprudence. In contrast to ideal solutions, where volumes are purely linear and commixture is ever complete, the volume of a non-ideal solution is non, in general, the simple amount of the volumes of the component pure liquids and solubility is non guaranteed over the whole composing scope.Figure ( 11 ) : Behavior of non ideal solutions.17. Statistical mechanics:Statistical mechanics or statistical thermodynamics is a mathematical tool trades with high population or informations. It ‘s related with macroscopic thermodynamic belongingss such as work, information, free energy, and heat. Ludwig Boltzmann is the male parent of statistical thermodynamics ; he started the work in statistical mechanics in 1870.18. Raoult ‘s Law /MIXTURES:The partial vapour force per unit area of a constituent in a mixture is equal to the vapour force per unit area of the pure constituent at that temperature multiplied by its mole fraction in the mixture. Raoult ‘s Law merely works for ideal mixtures In equation signifier, for a mixture of liquids A and B, this reads ( hypertext transfer protocol: //www.chemguide.co.uk/physical/phaseeqia/idealpd.html ) : In this equation, PA and PB are the partial vapor force per unit areas of the constituents A and B. In any mixture of gases, each gas exerts its ain force per unit area. This is called its partial force per unit area and is independent of the other gases present. Even if you took all the other gases off, the staying gas would still be exercising its ain partial force per unit area. The entire vapor force per unit area of the mixture is equal to the amount of the single partial force per unit areas. The Po values are the vapour force per unit areas of A and B if they were on their ain as pure liquids. xA and xB are the mole fractions of A and B. That is precisely what it says it is – the fraction of the entire figure of moles present which is A or B. mole fraction utilizing, for illustration:19. Reversible/irreversible/Adiabatic/isobaric/isothermal/Isochoric procedures:The reversible procedure is the procedure that the system takes topographic point one time and returns to its original province without any alteration in the system or environing [ Gordon J. Van Wylen ] . The irreversible procedure, this procedure done when the system undergoes certain procedure it transferred from province and can non return to its original province without any alteration in the system or environing [ Gordon J. Van Wylen ] . Adiabatic procedure, this done when the system transferred from one province to another without heat transportation to environing [ Gordon J. Van Wylen ] . Isobar procedure, it is a procedure with changeless force per unit area [ Gordon J. Van Wylen ] . Isothermal procedure, the system transferred from province to another at changeless temperature [ Gordon J. Van Wylen ] . Isochoric procedure, procedure with changeless volume [ Gordon J. Van Wylen ] .Figure ( 12 ) : The thermodynamics processes [ Gordon J. Van Wylen ] .20. Heat of Vaporization:Heat of vaporisation or latent heat of vaporisation is the sum of heat needed to reassign certain sum of affair from liquid province to vapor province. Heat of vaporisation depends on the affair itself, its sum ( mass ) , and the temperature. Table below shows the heat of vaporisation of H2O at different temperatures [ Gordon J. Van Wylen ] . No. Temperature ( Co ) Heat of Vaporization kJ/kg ) 1 5 2489.6 2 10 2477.7 3 15 2465.9 4 20 2454.1 5 25 2442.3 6 30 2430.5Table ( 1 ) : Heat of Vaporization for H2O at different temperatures [ Gordon J. Van Wylen ] .21. Restricting Procedures:Restricting procedure done when fluid go throughing through valve or sudden reduction in country, the flow is steady and the force per unit area Idaho drooped across the valve ; in the choking procedure the heat content is changeless, so the choking procedure is a procedure with changeless heat content. One application of restricting procedure is the restricting calorimeter, restricting calorimeter is a device used to find the quality of a two stage liquid-vapor mixture [ Gordon J. Van Wylen ] .Figure ( 13 ) : Restricting procedure [ Gordon J. Van Wylen ] .22. Joule Thomson Coefficient:Joule-Thomson coefficient relates to the choking procedure, it ‘s the consequence of divergence of temperature bead to coerce bead for a steady province, steady flow through partly opening valve. The equation below shows Joule-Thomson coefficient: Positive Joule-Thomson coefficient means that there is temperature bead during the choking procedure, but when it is negative the temperature rises during the restricting procedure [ Gordon J. Van Wylen ] .23. Maxwell ‘s Relationss:Maxwell dealingss are mathematical dealingss for compressible fluids, this relation are related four belongingss, the thermodynamics belongingss in Maxwell dealingss are force per unit area ( P ) , Temperature ( T ) , specific volume ( V ) , and information ( S ) . Maxwell dealingss are summarized in three positions as shown below, the first position the basic equation, the 2nd position the Maxwell relation, and the last position is the working equation [ Gordon J. Van Wylen ] .Basic equationMaxwell RelationWorking EquationWhere: Uracils: internal energy. CP: specific heat under changeless force per unit area. Thymine: Temperature. Curriculum vitae: specfic heat under changeless specific volume. Phosphorus: Pressure. Volts: Volume. Second: Information. Hydrogen: Enthaply.24. Chemical equilibrium in gases:Thermodynamicss equilibrium are established when no alteration in macroscopic belongings is obtained that is intend the system is isolated from the milieus. The equilibrium is classified to three types ‘ mechanical equilibrium, chemical equilibrium, and thermic equilibrium. In chemical equilibrium there is no reaction or affair transportation from one portion of the system to another portion ( P.K. NAG ) . The system may be in mechanical equilibrium yet the system may undergo self-generated Change of internal construction due to chemical potency, such as chemical reaction or a transportation of affair, the system so is said to be in chemical equilibrium if all interactions or alterations in the system cease to take topographic point. A burning mixture of O and gasolene is non in chemical equilibrium one time the mixture is ignited.25. Statements of the Second Law/ Kelvin /Planck/Clausius Statement:Kelvin-Planck statement:It is impossible to build a device which, runing in a rhythm, will bring forth no consequence other that raising of a weight and chilling of heat reservoir ( M.L. Mathur ) . It is impossible to build a cyclic device whose consequence is to pull out heat from a heat reservoir and wholly change over into work ( M.L. Mathur ) .Clausius statementIt is impossible to build a cyclic device which will bring forth no consequence other than the transportation of heat from a low temperature beginning to high temperature heat beginning ( M.L. Mathur ) . The heat can non flux by itself ( with out the aid of an external bureau ) from low temperature to high temperature ( M.L. Mathur ) .Figure ( 14 ) : This is non possible ( Kelvin-Planck ) .26. Information of a Mixture of Ideal Gases/ Gibbs-Dalton ‘s Law:The Gibbs-Dalton equation trades with gas mixture belongingss, the entire thermodynamic belongings of a mixture of ideal gases is the amount of the belongingss that the single gases would hold if each occupied the entire mixture volume entirely at the mixture temperature, ( M.L. Mathur ) , besides the mathematical signifier of Gibbs-Dalton equation as shown below:No.MeasureEquation1 Internal Energy 2 Heat content 3 Specific heat under changeless force per unit area 4 Specific heat under changeless specific volumeTable ( 2 ) : Gas mixture equations ( M.L. Mathur ) .27. Handiness:Handiness is the system maximal available energy. This non merely depends on the given province of the system but besides on the concluding province to which the system has to be taken and mode in which it is done. When handiness of the system is required to be determined so the concluding province of system ought to be dead province ( M.L. Mathur ) . The undermentioned points should be observed when finding the handiness of any system: The concluding province of the system is dead province. The system undergoes alteration of province by a reversible procedure. The construct of handiness introduce wholly a new and good construct in the field of heat engines where overall thermic efficiency, obtained on the footing of entire chemical energy of the fuel was the lone footing for comparing engines and their public presentation.28. Real Gases /Virial Equation of State /Van der Waals Equation of State:The continuity of liquids and gases were studied by Van der Waals, the equation of equation of province for gas was obtained in 1873, and the general signifier of Van der Waals equation is: Where: a: changeless measures the cohesive forces. B: changeless accounts the volume of gas molecules. V: specific volume. : Universal gas invariable. Thymine: Absolute gas temperature. The restrictions of Van der Waals equation are ( M.L. Mathur ) : The invariables a and B are measured changeless for a substance where as they are non ; this has been proved theoretically every bit good as by experimentation. The p-v secret plan of Van der Waals equation differs from Andrews secret plan. The value of the critical volume obtained from Van der Waals equation Al coefficient is 3b as compared to its experimental determine value of 2b for the moist substances. The critical coefficient is 0.375 for Van der Waals gas equation but from experiments it was from 0.2 to 0.3 for most substances.29. Fugacity:Fugacity ( degree Fahrenheit ) was used in the first clip by Lewis, the value of fugacity approaches the value of force per unit area as the missive tends to zero, when the ideal gas conditions applies. The derived function of the Gibbs map of an ideal gas undergoing an isothermal procedure is ( P.K.NAG ) : aˆÂ ¦aˆÂ ¦ ( 6 ) aˆÂ ¦aˆÂ ¦.. ( 7 ) For an ideal gas the fugacity f equal the gas force per unit area P, fugacity has the same dimensions as force per unit area.Figure ( 15 ) : Fugacity with temperature.30. Dalton ‘s Law, Raoult ‘s Law, Henry ‘s Law:Dalton states that the force per unit area of a mixture of gases is equal to the amount of the partial force per unit area of each component. This can be easy done utilizing perfect gas equation for component every bit good as for the mixture ( M.L. Mathur ) . Raoult ‘s jurisprudence [ for F. M. Raoult, a Gallic physicist and chemist ] provinces that the add-on of solute to a liquid lessens the inclination for the liquid to go a solid or a gas, i.e. , reduces the freeze point and the vapor force per unit area ( see solution ) . For illustration, the add-on of salt to H2O causes the H2O to stop dead below its normal freezing point ( 0A °C ) and to boil above its normal boiling point ( 100A °C ) . Qualitatively, depression of the freeze point and decrease of the vapour force per unit area are due to a lowering of the concentration of H2O molecules, since the more solute is added, the less the per centum of H2O molecules in the solution as a whole and therefore the less their inclination to organize into a crystal solid or to get away as a gas. Quantitatively, Raoult ‘s jurisprudence states that the dissolver ‘s vapor force per unit area in solution is equal to its mole fraction times its vapor force per unit area as a p ure liquid, from which it follows that the freeze point depression and boiling point lift are straight relative to the mode of the solute, although the invariables of proportion are different in each instance. This mathematical relation, nevertheless, is accurate merely for dilute solutions. The fact that an appropriate solute can both lower the freeze point and raise the boiling point of a pure liquid is the footing for year-round antifreeze for car chilling systems. In the winter the antifreeze lowers the freezing point of the H2O, forestalling it from stop deading at its normal freezing point ; in the summer it guards against furuncle over by raising the boiling point of the H2O. In chemical science, Henry ‘s jurisprudence is one of the gas Torahs, formulated by William Henry in 1803. It states that: At a changeless temperature, the sum of a given gas dissolved in a given type and volume of liquid is straight relative to the partial force per unit area of that gas in equilibrium with that liquid. An tantamount manner of saying the jurisprudence is that the solubility of a gas in a liquid at a peculiar temperature is relative to the force per unit area of that gas above the liquid. Henry ‘s jurisprudence has since been shown to use for a broad scope of dilute solutions, non simply those of gases. An mundane illustration of Henry ‘s jurisprudence is given by carbonated soft drinks. Before the bottle or can is opened, the gas above the drink is about pure C dioxide at a force per unit area somewhat higher than atmospheric force per unit area. The drink itself contains dissolved C dioxide. When the bottle or can is opened, some of this gas escap es, giving the characteristic hushing ( or â€Å" dad † in the instance of a bubbly bottle ) . Because the force per unit area above the liquid is now lower, some of the dissolved C dioxide comes out of solution as bubbles. If a glass of the drink is left in the unfastened, the concentration of C dioxide in solution will come into equilibrium with the C dioxide in the air, and the drink will travel â€Å" level † ( hypertext transfer protocol: //en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry's_law ) .31. Lost Work Rate, Irreversibility Rate, Availability Loss:Information is produced as a consequence of irreversibilities present in the procedure, this may explicate with the aid of construct of lost work. The doomed in work is zero in a reversible procedure and it increases with the addition in irreversibility of the procedure till it becomes maximal in instance of wholly irreversible procedure. The lost work is therefore defined as the difference of work obtained in a reversible procedure and existent procedure ( M.L. Mathur ) . The undermentioned notes for the work lost should be taken: For a reversible procedure when the work lost is zero the alteration in information is given by: The information of a system can be increased by two ways, foremost by adding heat to the system or by holding it undergoes an irreversible procedure. The addition in entropy due to work lost is called entropy production. For an adiabatic procedure, the alteration in information is associated with irreversibilities merely.32. Irreversibility and Entropy of an Isolated System:The information of an stray system can ne'er diminish. This is known as the rule of addition of information. An stray system can ever be formed by including any system and its milieus within a individual boundary. Some times the original system which is so merely a portion of the stray system called a subsystem. The system and milieus together include every thing which is affected by the procedure ( P.K. NAG ) . Information may be decreased locally at some part within the stray system. But it must be compensated by a greater addition of information some where within the system so that the net consequence of an irreversible procedure is an entropy addition of the hole system. The entropy addition of an stray system is a step of the extent of an irreversibility of the procedure undergone by the system. The information of an stray system ever increases and becomes a upper limit at the province of equilibrium. When the system is at equilibrium any imaginable alteration information would be zero.33. Reversible and Irreversible Procedures:A reversible procedure ( ideal procedure ) is one which is performed in such a manner that at the decision of the procedure, both the system and milieus may be restored to their initial provinces, with out bring forthing any alterations in the remainder of the existence. Let the stare of a system be represented by A and allow the system be taken to province B by following the way AB. If the system and besides milieus are restored to their initial provinces and no alteration in the existence is produced, so the procedure AiB will be reversible procedure. In the contrary procedure the system has to be taken from province B to A by following the same way BiA ( P.K. NAG ) . Any irreversible ( natural ) procedure carried out with a finite gradient is an irreversible procedure. A reversible procedure, which consists of a sequence of equilibrium provinces, is an idealised conjectural procedure.Figure ( 16 ) : Reversible procedure ( P.K. NAG ) .33. Dynamicss: Chemical reaction rates, half lives:Half-life is the period of clip it takes for a substance undergoing decay to diminish by half. The name originally was used to depict a feature of unstable atoms ( radioactive decay ) , but may use to any measure which follows a set-rate decay. The original term, dating to 1907, was â€Å" half-life period † , which was later shortened to â€Å" half-life † sometime in the early 1950s. Half-lives are really frequently used to depict measures undergoing exponential decay-for illustration radioactive decay-where the half life is changeless over the whole life of the decay, and is a characteristic unit ( a natural unit of graduated table ) for the exponential decay equation. However, a half life can besides be defined for non-exponential decay procedures, although in these instances the half life varies throughout the decay procedure. For a general debut and description of exponential decay, see the article exponential decay. For a general debut and description of non-exponential decay, see the article rate jurisprudence. An exponential decay procedure can be described by any of the undermentioned three tantamount expression: where N0: is the initial measure of the thing that will disintegrate ( this measure may be measured in gms, moles, figure of atoms, etc. ) , National trust: is the measure that still remains and has non yet decayed after a clip T, t1 / 2: is the half life of the decaying measure, I„ : is a positive figure called the mean life-time of the decaying measure, I » : is a positive figure called the decay invariable of the decaying measure.34. Temperature, force per unit area and i?„G:Gibbs equation shows the relation between force per unit area, temperature, and the alteration in free energy. The equation below shows that relation. G ( P, T ) = U + pV a?’ TS which is the same as: G ( P, T ) = H a?’ TS where: Uracil: is the internal energy ( SI unit: J ) P: is force per unit area ( SI unit: pascal ) Volt: is volume ( SI unit: M3 ) Thymine: is the temperature ( SI unit: K ) Second: is the information ( SI unit: J per K ) Hydrogen: is the heat content ( SI unit: J )35. Information and Disorder:Work is a macroscopic construct. Work involves orderly gesture of molecules as in the enlargement or compaction of a gas. The kinetic energy and possible energy of a system represent orderly signifiers of energy. The kinetic energy of a gas is due to the co-ordinated gesture of all the molecules with the same mean speed in the same way. The possible energy is due to vantage place taken by the molecules or supplantings of molecules from their normal place. It may province approximately that the information of a system is a step of the grade of molecular upset bing in the system.Figure ( 17 ) : Information and upset ( www.physcis.com ) .36. Osmotic force per unit area / Arrhenius Law:The Arrhenius equation is a simple, but unusually accurate, expression for the temperature dependance of the rate invariable, and hence, rate of a chemical reaction. The equation was foremost proposed by the Dutch chemist J. H. new wave ‘t Hoff in 1884 ; five old ages subsequently in 1889, the Swedish chemist Svante Arrhenius provided a physical justification and reading for it. Nowadays it is best seen as an empirical relationship. [ 2 ] It can be used to pattern the temperature-variance of diffusion coefficients, population of crystal vacancies, creep rates, and many other thermally-induced processes/reactions. A historically utile generalisation supported by the Arrhenius equation is that, for many common chemical reactions at room temperature, the reaction rate doubles for every 10 grade Celsius addition in temperature ( hypertext transfer protocol: //en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arrhenius_equation ) . In short, the Arrhenius equation gives â€Å" the dependance of the rate changeless K of chemical reactions on the temperature T ( in absolute temperature, such as Ks or grades Rankine ) and activation energy Ea, as shown below:37. Partition maps:In statistical mechanics, the divider map Z is an of import measure that encodes the statistical belongingss of a system in thermodynamic equilibrium. It is a map of temperature and other parametric quantities, such as the volume enveloping a gas. Most of the aggregative thermodynamic variables of the system, such as the entire energy, free energy, information, and force per unit area, can be expressed in footings of the divider map or its derived functions. There are really several different types of divider maps, each matching to different types of statistical ensemble ( or, equivalently, different types of free energy. ) The canonical divider map applies to a canonical ensemble, in which the system is allowed to interchange heat with the environment at fixed temperature, volume, and figure of atoms. The expansive canonical divider map applies to a expansive canonical ensemble, in which the system can interchange both heat and atoms with the environment, at fixed temperature, volume, and chemical potency. Other types of divider maps can be defined for different fortunes ( hypertext transfer protocol: //en.wikipedia.org ) . pi: indicate atom impulse. eleven: indicate atom places. d3: is a stenography notation functioning as a reminder that the pi and eleven are vectors in three dimensional infinite.38. Le Chatelier ‘s rule for Temperature:In 1884, the Gallic Chemist Henri Le Chatelier suggested that equilibrium systems tend to counterbalance for the effects of unhinging influences. When a system at equilibrium is disturbed, the equilibrium place will switch in the way which tends to minimise, or counteract, the consequence of the perturbation ( hypertext transfer protocol: //en.wikipedia.org ) ..If the concentration of a solute reactant is increased, the equilibrium place displacements to utilize up the added reactants by bring forthing more merchandises. If the force per unit area on an equilibrium system is increased, so the equilibrium place displacements to cut down the force per unit area. If the volume of a gaseous equilibrium system is reduced ( tantamount to an addition in force per unit area ) so the equilibrium place displacements to increase the volume ( tantamount to a lessening in force per unit area ) If the temperature of an endothermal equilibrium system is increased, the equilibrium place displacements to utilize up the heat by bring forthing more merchandises. If the temperature of an exothermal equilibrium system is increased, the equilibrium place displacements to utilize up the heat by bring forthing more reactants.39. Colligative belongingss:Colligative belongingss are the belongingss of the solution based on the figure of molecules per unit volume of the solution. Colligative belongingss include the vapor force per unit area, boiling and stop deading point, and osmotic force per unit area ( hypertext transfer protocol: //en.wikipedia.org ) . The vapor force per unit area of an ideal solution is dependent on the vapor force per unit area of each chemical constituent and the mole fraction of the constituent nowadays in the solution. The boiling temperature of the solution before making the vapour stage, the freeze point is the lowest temperature of the solution before it transferred to solid province. The osmotic force per unit area of a dilute solution at changeless temperature is straight relative to its concentration. The osmotic force per unit area of a solution is straight relative to its absolute temperature.40. Information and the Clausius inequality:The 2nd jurisprudence of thermodynamics leads to the definition of a new belongings called information, a quantitative step of microscopic upset for a system. Entropy is a step of energy that is no longer available to execute utile work within the current environment. To obtain the working definition of information and, therefore, the 2nd jurisprudence, allow ‘s deduce the Clausius inequality. See a heat reservoir giving up heat to a reversible heat engine, which in bend gives up heat to a piston-cylinder device as shown below ( hypertext transfer protocol: //en.wikipedia.org ) .Figure ( 18 ) : Piston-cylinder device.